Vedic Period
The Vedic period lasted from about 1500 to 500 BC
The word ‘Aryan’ means ‘of high birth’, but generally the word ‘Aryan’ is used to refer the people who spoke the Indo-Aryan language.
Most of the scholars agree with the theory put forward by the Max Muller that Aryans came to India from Central Asia.
Originally they lived in the steppes stretching from Southern Russia to Central Asia and spoke the Indo-European languages which are currently spoken in changed forms all over the Europe, Iran and greater part of Indian subcontinent.
They were semi-nomadic people. They started moving from their original home and migrated westwards, southwards and eastwards.
In the excavations at Boghaz-koi in Asia Minor, which dates to 1400 B.C., inscriptions are found containing the names of deities like Indra, Varuna and Nasataya. These gods are mentioned in Rig Veda. The clay tablets found at Tell el-Amarna in Egypt which belong to the same period of Boghaz-koi also contain Indo- Aryan names.
The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Vid’ which means ‘to know’.
Based upon their divine origin, the Vedas are called as apaurusheya (not created by man) and nitya (existing in all eternity).
The four important Vedas are:
- Rig Veda: Collection of hymns(oldest)
- Sama Veda: Collection of chants mostly taken from Rig Veda
- Yajur Veda: Collection of sacrificial formulas
- Atharva Veda: Collection of spells and charms
Rig- Vedic Period (1500-1000 BCE): The Rig Vedic period also known as Early Vedic period lasted for thousand years. The Vedic period is divided into Early Vedic and Later Vedic period; we will now deal with Early Vedic period or Rig Vedic period.
The core geographical area to which the evidence of the Rig Veda would relate to knowledge of Indus valley which was called Sapta-Sindhava or the land of seven rivers. Indus (Sindhu) is the most mentioned river in the Rig Veda.
The Nadisukta hymn of the Rig Veda mentions 21 rivers which include the Ganga in the east and the Kubha (Kabul) in the west and all rivers like the Yamuna, Saraswati, Sutlej, Ravi, Jhelum and Indus located between Ganga and Kabul rivers are mentioned serially beginning from east to West.
The Aryans first settled in Punjab. Gradually they moved south-eastwards into the region just north of Delhi. There used to be a river flowing nearby called Saraswati but the water of this river has now dried up. Here they remained for many years and composed the collection of hymns known as the Rig Veda.
In the same region, the plain of Kurukshetra where the great battle between Pandavas and the Kauravas was fought is found.
The Aryans moved still further eastwards into the Ganga valley clearing the thick forests as they went along.
Rig Vedic society is basically a tribal society.
The Arya varna consisted of the Aryans whose tribes were called ‘Janas’. The Jana was divided into group of people called ‘Vis’. The Vis was divided into grama and when the gramas clashed with one another it caused Sangrama or war. Gramas were divided into Kulas(family), the head of which was called Kulapa.
The 10th book of Purusa Sukta hymn, where it states that Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra sprang respectively from mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the cosmic man (Purushasva) and these names later signified the following four varnas.
Inter tribal conflicts were frequent, an example being the “Battle of Ten kings” over the division of water of the river Ravi mentioned in the Rig Veda. The battle of ten kings, gives names of ten kings who participated in a war against Sudas who was the king of Bharata clan.
The status of women in early vedic society is complex. Women played a certain part in the productive process which is evident from the term duhitri (the term used for the daughter who used to milk the cow). Child marriage was unknown. There are no indications to suggest that women could occupy the highest positions of authority and prestige – those of priests or Raja. Their education was not neglected and some of them composed hymns and rose to the ranks of seers.
Women used to participate in the Vidhatha and Sabha which are considered to be the earliest tribal assemblies.
The wife participated in the religious offerings of the husband.
The cow was already deemed aghnya “not to be killed”. The Vedas prescribe a penalty of death or expulsion from the kingdom to those who killed or injured the cows.
Alcoholic drinks, sura and soma were also consumed, though their consumption has been condemned because of its intoxicating effect.
The political structure of Rig Vedic India was as under:
Family —> Village —> Clan —> People —> Country
(Kula) (Grama) (Vis) (Jana) (Rashtra)
The head of Grama and Vis were called Gramini and Vispati respectively.
The king administered justice with the assistance of purohita and other officials. For his services the king was paid bali (voluntary gift or tribute). The bali came to the king from his own people and also from defeated people.
Apart from Sabha and Samiti, other tribal assemblies called Vidhatha and Gana are also mentioned in Rig Veda.
The people in the early Vedic age were predominantly pastoral though agriculture was practiced. Various animals as cow, goat, sheep, camel bull, horse were reared of which most important was the cow. Gomat was the term used to denote a wealthy man which literally meant a man who possessed cattle.
Godhuli is used as a term for a measurement of time.
Early Vedic period did neither use iron nor copper. Stone tools were used as mentioned in the Rig Veda. Fire was used to burn down forest cover and shifting agriculture was practiced.
Rig Veda also provides references of ploughed fields, stone pulley wheels and irrigation channels. The Rig Veda mentions only one food grain called ‘Yava’ which in later times had the specific sense of barley but in Rig Veda it is the common name for any food grain.
Aryans worshiped forces of nature such as the sun, the stars, the wind, the moon, the earth, the sky, trees, rivers and mountains, all became gods and goddesses.
Dyaus was the sky-God.
Indra was the God of rain, storm and war.
Surya was the Sun-God.
Agni was the God of fire.
Ushas was the Goddess of the dawn.
Arnayani was Goddess of the forest
Nirrti was Goddess of decay and death
Aditi was Goddess of eternity
The Hiraṇyagarbha Sūkta of the Rig Veda declares that God manifested himself in the beginning as the Creator of the Universe, encompassing all things, including everything within Him.
Later Vedic Period
The expression ‘Later Vedic Civilization’ comprises the changes and developments that took place in the religious, social, economic and political conditions of the people during the period when the later Samhitas – Atharva, Yaju and Sama and the Brahmanas and Sutras were composed.
These texts show that the Aryans during the later Vedic period shifted from the North-West to the region of the Ganges and Yamuna. The centre of culture shifted from rivers Sindhu- Saraswati to Ganga-Yamuna.
The four Vedas were followed by the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads. The Brahmanas, the earliest of the Aryan’s prose literature, explain in detail various Vedic sacrificial ceremonies and their origins. Aranyakas are the concluding portions of the Brahmanas and are called so because the philosophical and mystical character of their contents required that they should be studied in the solitude of the aranya or forest. The Aranyakas form a tradition that culminates in the Upanishads, the last phase of the Vedic literature.
The Brahmanas are divided into
- Aithareya Brahmana (pertaining to the Rig Veda)
- Taitriya Brahmana (Pertaining to Yajur Veda)
- Shatapata Brahmana (Pertaining to Yajur Veda)
- Chandogya Brahmana (Pertaining to Sama Veda)
- Gopada Brahmana (Pertaining to Atharva Veda)
Upa means near, nishad means sit for discussions and dialogues. Therefore Upanishads means dialogue on the Vedas. There are about 108 Upanishads.
The ‘Janas’ of the early vedic age were transformed into ‘Janapadas’ (territory under units of tribal people) of the later Vedic age.
The texts testify the growth of three kingdoms, namely, Kosala, Kashi and Videha.
The proliferation of professions gave rise to jatis. But the jati system was not so rigid. There are some instances which convey the message that jati system was not rigid.
The RigVeda describes Vishvamitra as a rishi but Aitareya Brahmana mentions him as Kshatriya. In the same Brahmana we find that rigidity in terms of jati is coming up.
The institution of Gotra appeared during this period. People started practicing gotra exogamy (marriage outside the gotra), widening socio-political ties against endogamy (marriage within the tribe in order to maintain purity of the tribe).
Four ashrams or stages of life were prescribed as
Brahmacharya -studentship
Grihasta -households
Vanaprashta – partial retirement from household life by living in the forest
Sanyasa -complete retirement from active participation in the world
Only first three are mentioned in the later Vedic texts and fourth was first mentioned in the Upanishads.
Status of women declined compared to the early vedic period as
Birth of girl child was not welcome
Upanayana ceremony was not performed to girls
Women were deprived of the right to attend assemblies
The emergence of ‘Janapadas’ is seen in this period. While Jana was used in the sense of people or the tribe in RigVedic period, Janapada meant the area where the tribe settled. The Bharatas and Purus, the two major tribes, combined to form Kuru janapada.The Kurus settled in upper Ganga-Yamuna doab with two capital at Hastinapur and Indraprastha on the banks of the rivers Ganga and Yamuna respectively.
There also developed special ceremonies for the anointment of kings, such as the Vajpeya, Rajsuya and Ashvamedha. Though the monarchy established itself on firm foundations, it was not absolute but limited in several ways. Within the framework of kingship, there were operating certain democratic elements.
The Sabha functioned as a parliament for disposal of public business by debate and discussion. The Chief of the Sabha was called sabhapati, the keepers as sabhapala and the members as sabheya, sabhasad or sabhasina.
There were rules which governed the debate in sabha and Vajsaneyi Samhita mentions that erring members were ‘rebuked’. Sabha also seems to have functioned as a court of justice. The sabha was a smaller select body and also functioned as the lower court, while the samiti was the larger General Assembly of the people.
Many kinds of grains were grown such as wheat (Godhuma), rice (Vrihi), moong (Mudga), urad (mass), millet (syamaka), beans, sesame (tila) and also sugarcane. Their seasons are also mentioned: barley sown in winter, ripened in summer; rice sown in the rains, reaped in autumn.
Specific weight and measure-units were also known. Niska and satamana were the units of currency.
Bali became customary contribution; bhaga was a share of the produce (1/6th to ½) while shukla was an additional tax.
During the period of Rig Veda we find the mention of only ayas which has been taken as copper/bronze. With the introduction of a new metal i.e. iron in this age we get the terms Shyam ayas or Krishna ayas (iron) and Lohit ayas (copper). Besides these, gold, lead and tin are also referred to.
The rituals accompanying the sacrifices became elaborate and complicated and needed professional men like the priests.
Prajapati, the creator became important since myths of creation were important in the agrarian people. Rudra, a minor deity in Rigveda became important and Vishnu was conceived as the preserver and protector of the people. Pushan, who protected cattle in the early Vedic period, now became the God of the shudras.
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